The Vikings were not Christian when they arrived in Scotland and this is reflected in their burials, which are easily distinguished from those of the indigenous Christian inhabitants, as Norse graves were furnished with grave goods; Christian graves were without grave goods.This may however be too simplistic. The Picts had only recently been converted to Christianity when the Vikings arrived in Scotland. It is possible that the practice of placing objects in the grave may have been taken up again by some sections of the indigenous population. In a mixed marriage for example which practice was followed? We cannot be certain that all those buried in accompanied graves were necessarily Scandinavians. Conversely it is an assumption that all unaccompanied burials of the period must be of the native population. However, the distribution of furnished graves follows to a great extent the familiar pattern of the place-names, hoards and settlements, that is the Western and Northern Isles and Caithness. Several burials were disturbed in the past and were not always well-recorded. Occasionally too only objects were recovered and it is assumed they were grave goods.
A few cemeteries are known, especially the Pictish cemetery at Westness on Rousay Island, Orkney, which continued to be used by Vikings, but also at Cnip, Hebrides and at Pierowall on Sanday Island, Orkney. The preferred rite in Scotland appears to have been inhumation, though mention of burning in some older accounts may suggest a small number of cremations. Cremation was a widespread rite in Norway, so perhaps the incoming Norse were influenced by the universal Christian and native rite of inhumation. If so this is another hint of acculturation in Scotland and should make us wary of over rigid categorisation.
Vikings were usually buried fully clothed and most often with the body extended. Several female burials are known from Scotland, where the body was dressed in traditional Norse dress, with a pair of oval brooches. These are most likely to be burials of Viking women, though the possibility that some are native women, who adopted the style of dress of their new families, cannot be ruled out entirely. A number of burials in boats or ships have also been identified in Scotland. The precise number is unobtainable, because of poor records from older finds, but around eight or nine are likely. These were mainly oared vessels of about 4m - 8m in length. Warrior burials are fairly common, with a range of weapons denoting the high status individual down to the single weapon of the lowlier warrior.
Graves are notoriously difficult to date from their grave goods, because the choice of objects to be put into the grave might include items which were already old, special heirlooms as well as objects which the deceased had acquired during their lifetime.The date of manufacture will not usually be the date of deposition in the grave. Attempts have been made to date some graves back into the eighth century on the basis of the earliest dated object, but of course it is critical to examine all the grave goods from a particular grave to arrive at a considered date. Modern scholarship would suggest that the bulk of the Scottish graves fall within the period mid-ninth to mid-tenth centuries.
Who were the deceased? It has been suggested that warrior burials on some of the Western Isles were those of raiders, especially those active around the Irish coast. This is perfectly possible, though they might equally well represent wealthy traders, landowners or landlords. We should probably avoid compartments. The boat-burial at Kiloran Bay, Colonsay discovered in 1882 is a case in point. Here the remains of a middle-aged man were found within a rectangular kerb of upright stones. Near him were his sword, shield, spear, axe and two arrowheads. A scattering of rivets betrayed the presence of a boat. A pair of portable scales with lead weights were nearby. Just outside the stone setting was the skeleton of a horse. Kiloran Bay is a prime location on Colonsay and might suggest a landowner. The scales have suggested to some a trader and the weapons and boat suggest the man was a warrior of some status. This burial therefore illustrates the problem of interpretation.
At Westness, a low-lying peninsula on Rousay island a cemetery of 32 graves has been excavated recently. It included Pictish slab-lined graves without grave goods and dating from the 7th century onwards. Most of the Pictish graves were marked with a headstone and appear to have been respected by subsequent Viking graves. Seven burials with grave goods were added to the cemetery in the ninth century including two boat graves. The boats were 4.5m and 5.5m long and prow and stern were packed with flat stones to leave a burial chamber in the centre. Here in each case the man’s body was laid with weapons and tools around him. The shield boss of one had been damaged by a blow and the other warrior was buried with arrowheads in his chest, so both seem to have been involved in fighting during which the latter at elast was killed. A richly-furnished female grave included a recently born child. Both had probably died during childbirth. A pair of oval brooches, a necklace of beads, a silver Irish brooch-pin of eighth century manufacture, two Anglo-Saxon strap-ends, a comb, sickle and shears illustrate the variety and wealth of grave goods buried in the grave.
At Scar on Sanday Island, Orkney in 1991, human bone and iron rivets were noted eroding from a low cliff onto a beach. Excavation was carried out that winter in difficult circumstances. At some point most probably in the late ninth or early tenth century a boat some 7.15m in length had been lowered into a prepared pit in the sand. The bodies of a child aged about 10, a man in his 30’s and a woman in her 70’s were placed in the western two-thirds of the boat with a rich array of grave goods. The rest was filled with stones. Unfortunately much had been lost to erosion, but the excavation showed the boat was of oak and pine, fastened together with iron rivets and clinker built in the northern tradition. Sand grains in the caulking between the planks have proved foreign to Scotland and perhaps show that the boat was constructed in Norway. If so it was probably brought to Scotland in a larger vessel. Weapons, including a sword, whale-bone gaming-pieces, a comb and two lead weights were placed with the man.
The woman had a remarkably well-preserved whale-bone plaque, probably used in conjunction with a piece of glass to polish linen cloth and a rare find in Scotland and likely a symbol of some status. Close by was a rare equal-armed brooch, comb, spindle whorls, sickle, shears, needle-case and a maplewood box. All three were interred at the same time and therefore probably died together, perhaps of disease or by drowning. The skeletal material yielded no clue. The lady seems to have been placed in prime position in the centre of the boat and laid on her back with the child beside her. Her great age makes her extremely unusual in this period and makes it impossible to work out the exact relationship between the three. Both adults had rich grave goods, so it is unlikely that either was a sacrificial servant or slave placed in the grave. The evidence collectively may suggest that they were relatively recent arrivals from Norway. The burial may well have been part of a larger cemetery and a survey has revealed a settlement 200m away, though this remains unexcavated and therefore undated.
In attempting to assess the extent and nature of Viking activities in Scotland funerary evidence is clearly helpful, particularly when used in conjunction with the evidence from place-names, hoards and settlement sites. Grave goods and burial rites show us the social status of individuals, their religious beliefs and to an extent their daily lives. Adult males may be seen as warriors, but we glimpse them also as farmers and fishermen, engaged in commercial transactions and at leisure. Grave goods in male graves include arrowheads, swords and spearheads, weighing scales and weights, fishing line weights and counters for board games. Women were also involved in farming practices, textile production, cooking and running the home, as revealed by grave goods such as sickles, weaving battens, cooking spits, needle cases and smoothing boards with glass smoothers. The latter were made of whale-bone and were probably used to smooth out and put a sheen on linen garments.
Questions for you to think about
- Can we distinguish Christian from pagan graves in Scotland in this period?
- Why are accompanied graves difficult to date?
- Why were some individuals buried in ships or boats and what does the rite tell us about these people?
- How might the identification of a number of female accompanied burials help us?
Quiz
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