University of Exeter - Open Exeter

Wales

Wales is different most of our other regions in that it was fully absorbed into the Roman Empire, although much of central and north Wales remained relatively unaffected by the process of Romanisation. In the late Roman and immediately post-Roman period parts of Wales were affected by a movement of Irish out of Ireland characterised initially by writers as raiding activities, but followed in the fifth century by settlement in south-west and parts of north-west Wales, evidence for which appears in place-name evidence and ogam inscriptions on stone memorials. The same argument - colonisation by Irish families or the influence of a relatively small elite has been posed here as for Dalriada. One other legacy of Roman Britain is that the people of Wales apparently continued to be Christian.

A period of kingdom formation followed the Roman period, where larger kingdoms were formed out of smaller territories, partly apparently based on pre-Roman tribal divisions and partly - in the southern plain - on Roman self- governing areas. Gildas, probably writing somewhere in Wales in the mid -6th century AD mentions two kings of the Demetae and of Gwynedd and he and other sources allow the recognition of 4 kingdoms, Gwynedd, Dyfed, Powys and Gwent by the end of the 6th.

A period of kingdom formation in Wales, in common with other areas of western and northern Britain, followed the abandonment of Britain by the Roman government. The boundaries and names of the kingdoms altered as inter-marriage and warfare changed them. Note the long coast line of Wales, its rivers and sheltered bays, especially along the north side of the Bristol channel and along the west coast. Note also the position of Anglesey off the northwest coast of Wales. This fertile island was a major agricultural resource for the kings of Gwynedd.

Relations between the Welsh and the English kingdoms is one salient point. For a while in the 7th century there was a degree of cooperation between particularly Gwynedd and Mercia, but relations were hostile from then on, particularly as the growing power of Mercia began to threaten the Welsh. The construction of Offa’s Dyke towards the end of the 8th century was intended perhaps to formalise arrangements between the two sides - marking the boundary between the English and Welsh kingdoms, but English kings remained acquisitive aiming to dominate either by direct takeover of land, as perhaps English place-names west of the Dyke suggest, or more often by overlordship. From the mid 9th century Mercia and Wessex cooperated to dominate the Welsh  and from the end of the 9th century Wessex and later English kings were recognised as Welsh overlords.

This discontinuous ditch and rampart system, in places with a stone wall atop was almost certainly built on the orders of King Offa of Mercia between 757 - 796. The path is on top of the earthwork. Note how the land drops away on either side of it.

By then the activities of Viking leaders in Wales also had to be reckoned with. In part it was their activities which drove the Welsh kings to seek protection from English rulers. The southern Welsh kingdoms sought out the protection of Alfred of Wessex in the later 9th century partly because their powerful neighbour Gwynedd had formed an alliance with the Vikings of York, though the latter appear to have derived no benefit from it.

Ninth and early tenth century attacks were in part an extension of Viking activity in the Irish Sea but also of Danish attacks on the English kingdoms. Later tenth century attacks targeted Anglesey and may have resulted in Viking settlement or control of the island. Eleventh century expeditions of Hiberno-Norse fleets came to Wales from Dublin.

The clear impression gained from the sparse written sources for Wales in the Viking Age suggests not surprisingly that Wales was targeted especially from Ireland, though Viking leaders active in England also interfered in Wales from time to time. Anglesey, that fertile island which was the cornerstone of the economy of Gwynedd, was singled out and perhaps for a time was under Viking control within the period late 9th - early 11th centuries. A tradition in Dublin suggests the Dublin kings ruled also in North Wales in the 11th century. The name Anglesey is Norse - meaning Ongul’s island.

The pattern of attacks on Wales, according to the documentary evidence, began with the killing of the king of Powys, Cyngen, in 850. However, it is most likely that there had been unrecorded attacks or coastal explorations before this, given the level of Viking activity recorded by the Irish annals in the Irish Sea before that. We are reminded that our written sources may not record every Viking attack. Rhodri Mawr, king of Gwynedd successfully resisted the Vikings, but was driven out by the English (extract 4) only to be killed by them the following year on his return. Thereafter Viking activities in Wales peaked. Ingimund was one war-band leader driven out of Ireland in 902 and he came to Anglesey, but was in turn driven away. The first half of the tenth century, certainly from c. 920- 950 was peaceful, during the reign of the great Hywel Dda. This is the time that Vikings were settling in England, Normandy and Ireland. Raiding began again after 961 .though thereafter Gruffyd ap Llewellyn, 1039 - 1063 kept the peace by allying himself with the Dublin and Isle of Man Viking leaders.

Here an enclosed farming settlement of c. 600 was replaced in the late ninth century with a stone walled enclosure. Excavations have revealed timber halls and a variety of objects. The site is so far unique in Viking Age Wales. 

Recent excavations, still ongoing, have revealed a large irregular shaped enclosure above the sheltered haven of Red Wharf Bay on the east side of Anglesey. The site is some 1000m inland from the sea on a slight rise, with a plentiful supply of fresh water. A farming settlement of c. 600 consisting of circular timber houses and a timber hall was set within an earthwork enclosure. During the later ninth century the earthwork was replaced with an enormous dry stone wall some 2.2m wide (see plan). Perhaps this symbolised power and was meant to deter attack. Within were several timber halls including one with a raised central hearth. Objects from the tenth century suggest either a Norse takeover or other forms of contact . Hack-silver, merchant’s lead weights, Irish ring pins and Northumbrian penny all suggest far-flung contacts. Leather and antler was worked and farming activities are also evidence from quernstones and animal bones. At least five human skeletons have been found flung unceremoniously into the ditch. Perhaps the Vikings did take the site over by force, at least for a short time.

The line of exterior post holes can be seen in black and the wall benches, in mustard colour, unusually carry around the inner end wall of the house. A raised central hearth is visible. The building has some of the characteristics of Dublin houses and others from Viking Age houses in Scotland.

Welsh monasteries were also targeted, though, like Scotland these houses were not rich, with the exception of St Davids (Menavia) which was consequently repeatedly attacked, like some of the sites (Armagh e.g.) in Ireland.. Mention of the seizure of 2000 men on Anglesey in 987 is also reminiscent of Viking seizure of slaves in Ireland, as we have seen.

What were Viking leaders’ aims in Wales? As far as we can judge it was not political domination, though the occupation of Anglesey and the find at Red Wharf Bay might give pause for thought on this point, so similarities perhaps with Ireland, rather than Scotland. Their activities did have political effects in Wales, though. Gwynedd’s power expanded in the 9th century, when it came close to dominating Wales. Viking activities stopped that. Unlike Scotland, the Scandinavians in Wales may have prevented unity rather than promoting it. Unlike Ireland no high kings emerged with enhanced powers. In the three cornered Welsh political situation, Welsh, Vikings and English, different alliances emerged and from time to time Welsh kings, like their Irish counterparts, made use of Viking armies.

However, the pattern of Scandinavian place-names in the fertile southern plain and in the northwest might suggest some form of colonisation and the grouping of names around the south Wales inlets and natural harbours - Swansea, Cardiff and above all Milford Haven, might allow for commercial activities. The few coastal silver hoards might also suggest wealth was brought into Wales -perhaps from raiding or commerce? Names of islands and headlands off the south coast may suggest naming for navigational purposes, particularly as Bristol developed from the late 10th century and the direction of trade from Ireland switched towards the West Country.

Apart from Anglesey the south Wales plain was and is the most fertile farming area in Wales. It also has a number of sheltered natural harbour - Milford Haven, Swansea, Cardiff . We know that Vikings were very active in the Bristol Channel and some of the names may have resulted from the naming of navigation points - islands, headlands, pillars of rock. Other sites inland may be the result of settlement by Scandinavian families in this fertile area. However, we cannot be certain of the date of this naming and it has been argued that the names could have resulted from introduction of Scandinavian naming terms after the Norman Conquest of south Wales.

As in south Wales, names of coastal features may have resulted from navigation along the north coast, especially perhaps as ships used the route to Chester, which was occupied by Vikings for a short time in the late ninth century, but which was also a key port trading with Dublin and perhaps other Irish settlements throughout the tenth century. Remember that apart from the names on the map, Anglesey is also an Old Norse name: Angle is the personal name Ongul and ey is old Norse for island.

The sculptured crosses of Wales begin to show the influence of Viking art styles from the late 10th century. This may merely indicate the general cultural influences observed in Scotland and England, rather than direct contact between Viking settlers in Wales and Welsh Christian ritual, however the latter should not be totally ruled out.

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