Viking was the name applied to the people of Scandinavia from the 11th century and is still in common use today for Scandinavians active in Europe from the 9th to the 11th centuries. Contemporary writers used other names such as heathen, northmen, barbarians, gentiles or pagans. The word Viking does not appear to have been used by the Scandinavians of themselves until it appears on a few Swedish rune-stones in the 11th century, rather they probably referred to each other after the name of the community where they were born - Vestfolders or Horthalanders for example. Here we encounter our first problem in studying the Vikings - they have left us very few written accounts of themselves. Writings of the period were almost all done by Christians in monasteries in Western Europe and by people generally hostile to the Vikings. Archaeological and place-name evidence must therefore be used in conjunction with written material to obtain a balanced view of the Viking Age.
So, where does the word Viking come from? There are various theories, which include a derivation from the Latin vicus meaning a settlement and when borrowed into the Germanic language used by the Scandinavians becoming vik, giving us viking, man of the vik or settlement. Old Icelandic vik means a bay or creek, so viking might mean a man of the creek i.e. a trader or a man who lurks in a creek, i.e. a pirate.
Our own view of the Vikings has been coloured by the Christian and Islamic accounts of the period. When these began to be studied in the 17th and 18th centuries scholars formed a view of the Vikings as bloodthirsty raiders, obsessed by senseless killing. This view was reinforced by historians in the 19th century who studied the reign of King Alfred of Wessex and the near-loss of Christian England to pagan Viking armies. The view of the Vikings as psychopathic killers is still with us in Hollywood films, cartoons and in the public imagination. This course will try to achieve a more balanced view of the Vikings using all available source material.
Source Material
We will be using contemporary written accounts to supplement our archaeological material. Study of this period involves careful use of both types of evidence, which is one of the attractions of Viking Age scholarship. Here are notes on some of these sources:
Irish Annals
Annals were accounts kept in monasteries recording major events by year. The events may have been recorded as they occurred, but the versions which survive are 15th century in date. Fortunately many annals were kept at different locations, so it is possible to cross reference for accuracy. There are references occasionally to events outside Ireland.
Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh (War of the Irish against the foreigners)
This is a 12th century work of propaganda and untrustworthy unless it can be checked against other sources. It was written in praise of the O’Brien kings of Ireland. The motives of those writing needs to be questioned since they may be trying to please a patron or pursuing a claim to land or a kingdom.
Annales Cambriae (Annals of Wales)
A series of short statements of events, probably written down first in the 11th century. Other Welsh annals are much later, 15th century compilations.
Adam of Bremen: History of the Church at Hamburg
For Scandinavia and especially Norway, written evidence is thin. Adam of Bremen writing in the late 11th century refers to it, but is hostile, as Norwegian rulers resisted the archbishop of Hamburg’s claim to include Norway in its archdiocese.
The Sagas
Accounts written initially in Iceland from the 12th century of the activities of great Viking warriors. Essentially these are oral traditions - great stories - written down and they have had a major influence on the modern view of Vikings. As history, however, they are untrustworthy. However, we will use the Orkneyinga Saga, which tells the history of the Norse earls of Orkney and apparently has some reliable material.
Runic Inscriptions
Runes were common to all Germanic groups, which included the Scandinavians. Runes were a primitive alphabet of 16 letters or sounds represented by vertical and diagonal straight stokes, originally for carving on wood, but found also on stone and metal. Some 2,500 survive from Sweden, 220 from Denmark, 50 from Norway and 60 from British Isles, half of which are from the Isle of Man. Most are memorials to the dead, but they may have been used for other short messages too. Most are late in date - 10th - 11th century.
Place-names
An important body of information, which is difficult to interpret. Distribution maps of Viking place-name elements may suggest patterns or density of settlement or even types of settlers, although place-name experts often disagree on interpretation. Extracting names from modern maps may be misleading since language changes may alter names given to settlements or topographical features.
Archaeology
The contribution of archaeology is perhaps more important in the Irish Sea area than elsewhere in the British Isles, as the written record is so sparse. Archaeological techniques supply details of material culture -the impact on the landscape, cemeteries and settlements and artefacts which allow glimpses of craft-working, economy, and everyday life. Scientific methods of dating such as dendrochronology and radio-carbon 14 are beginning to provide a chronological framework. Some recent projects have examined environmental evidence - pollen, seeds for example, which has added to our knowledge - the Birsay Bay project on Orkney is one such. Many sites have been dug by rescue excavation, in Scotland especially because of sites exposed by coastal erosion, and we should be aware of this bias in the excavation record.
Questions for you to think about
- What are the possible origins of the word ‘Viking’?
- Why is our view of the Vikings likely to be distorted?
- What are the advantages and drawbacks of using written evidence for this period?
- What sort of evidence would you expect to obtain from archaeological sources and from written sources?
Quiz
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