Who is to Blame for Women’s Lower Pay? A Contextual Approach to the Gender Pay Gap in Managerial Positions
Kulich, Clara
Date: 1 May 2008
Thesis or dissertation
Publisher
University of Exeter
Degree Title
PhD in Psychology
Abstract
Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital
factors are controlled for. This gender pay gap is particularly prominent in upper
management where on average female leaders are allocated 30 per cent less pay than male
leaders. This thesis examines the underlying causes and the consequences of the gender pay
gap ...
Women are paid less than men in comparable occupations when human capital
factors are controlled for. This gender pay gap is particularly prominent in upper
management where on average female leaders are allocated 30 per cent less pay than male
leaders. This thesis examines the underlying causes and the consequences of the gender pay
gap in managerial positions by considering the organisational context (i.e., company
performance) and social context (i.e., women’s experiences in the workplace) in which
these differences emerge. First, three studies identify and examine gender disparities in the
way in which performance-based pay is allocated as a function of company performance.
Second, a survey study takes the perspective of leaders themselves by considering gender
differences in pay-related attitudes and their relationship to distinct gendered experiences in
the workplace.
An archival study (Study 1, N = 192), an experiment (Study 2, N = 201), and a
survey (Study 3, N = 180) investigated the role of gender in the relationship between
managerial bonuses and company performance. In studies 1 and 3 the bonuses awarded to
men were larger than those allocated to women. Moreover, while the compensation of male
leaders was sensitive to performance, such that they received greater bonuses the better
their company performed, the bonuses awarded to female directors were not sensitive to
performance across all three studies. The psychological processes related to this
phenomenon were explored in Study 2. It was found that, for a male leader, increasing
company performance simply led to larger performance-related bonuses. However, for a
female leader, the allocation of a bonus was based on perceptions of her charisma and
leadership ability rather than resulting directly from company performance.
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Study 4 examines gender similarities and differences in attitudes towards pay and
pay negotiations. In a sample of 180 employees with managerial responsibilities, no gender
differences in attitudes about the importance of pay were found. However, while female
participants felt less confident than men about asking for pay rises, this was, at least in part,
explained by their negative workplace experiences, such as feeling to have to invest more
time and effort in order to achieve a pay rise and fearing negative responses when making
pay demands.
The importance of integrating the organisational and social context in the analysis
of the gender pay gap is discussed in light of the limitations of a primarily individualistic
approach. The role of the organisational context in moderating the attributional dynamics
surrounding pay and evaluation patterns is explained within the framework of literature on
the romance of leadership and gender stereotypes. The social context is considered in terms
of the role of societal beliefs which may influence women’s decisions to opt out of top
managerial jobs and their lack of confidence with pay negotiations. Finally, these findings
are used to critique the tendency to blame women themselves for gender disparities in pay
and their under-representation in managerial jobs, and instead I argue that it is
organisational indifference towards women that perpetuates the gender pay gap.
Doctoral Theses
Doctoral College
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