Human dimensions of non-compliance in a large-scale Marine Protected Area

Abstract

Achieving compliance with management and policies is vital for conservation success. As a human behaviour, managing non-compliance requires understanding of social factors of systems that are inherently social-ecological in nature. However, across marine conservation there remains key gaps in understanding of incentives for non-compliance, and social context of perpetrators, including for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Global expansion of MPA coverage has been substantially bolstered by creation of large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs, >100,000 km2), which offer important conservation successes such as encompassing holistic ecological systems. Yet, LSMPAs have been criticised for a lack of attention paid to associated social factors and outcomes, which some have connected with the persistence of non-compliance within many LSMPAs. Given their intended keystone role in marine conservation, addressing these criticisms is vital (Chapter 1). This thesis studied non-compliance by the Sri Lankan offshore fleet in the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), a large (640,000km2) MPA located in the central Indian Ocean. Data collected within Sri Lankan fishing communities using social science research methods were used to describe fishing behaviour and non-compliance within this fleet. Current knowledge of illegal fishing within BIOT taken from enforcement of the MPA is reviewed within the context of fieldwork data (Chapter 2). We characterised similarities of non-compliant vessels and, using social network analysis, identified social ties between 66% of illegal vessels. These findings highlight the potential of adapting policy to target specific sectors of the fleet and for localised drivers of non-compliance. Participatory mapping techniques identified the broad spatial footprint of the fleet across the Indian Ocean and found 62% may frequent foreign countries waters illegally (Chapter 3). Perceptions of high populations of sharks within foreign waters were identified as a key driver, due to their high economic value and decreasing regional populations. Results highlighted the economic importance of sharks, suggesting they provide income for 74% of the surveyed vessels. Using value chain analysis, the economic importance of sharks within Sri Lanka was investigated (Chapter 4). Supply chains for shark products were mapped, and reliance on shark products was explored, including describing factors that determine price of landed sharks. On average, blue sharks (Prionace glauca) fetched lower prices than other landed species, including those of conservation concern, highlighting potential species-specific differences in economic incentives for targeting sharks. Sri Lankan national shark policy and management, specifically the ban on fishing thresher sharks (Alopiidae), was examined to determine effectiveness of existing measures (Chapter 5). The interaction of perceptions and impacts of the ban with compliance were explored. Key learnings were identified, including increasing stakeholder engagement and communication when introducing shark conservation policies. Finally, data and findings are synthesised within the context of existing national and regional management and policy to identify recommendations to mitigate non-compliance (Chapter 6). Overall, a more nuanced approach to LSMPA management, that investigates alternatives to purely sanctions-based models, is advocated for. Further, the potential benefits of adapting management based on understanding of social drivers gathered directly from perpetrators of non-compliance is highlighted.