Benevolent and hostile sexism in a shifting global context

Abstract

Theory and research on ambivalent sexism—which encompasses both attitudes that are overtly negative (hostile sexism) and those that seem subjectively positive but are actually harmful (benevolent sexism)—has made substantial contributions to understanding how sexism operates and the consequences it has for women. It is now clear that sexism takes different forms, some of which can be disguised as protection and flattery. However, all forms of sexism have negative effects on how women are perceived and treated by others as well as on women themselves. Some of these findings have implications for understanding other social inequalities, such as ableism, ageism, racism, and classism. In this Review, we summarize what is known about the predictors of ambivalent sexism and its effects. Although we focus on women we also consider some effects on men, in particular those that indirectly impact women. Throughout the Review we point to societal shifts that are likely to impact how sexism is manifested, experienced, and understood. We conclude by discussing the broader implications of these changes and specifying areas of enquiry that need to be addressed to continue making progress in understanding the mechanisms underlying social inequalities.